An Approach To Indian History -Prof. Kittu Reddy

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THE First Invasions

One of the special characteristics of Indian culture is its power of assimilation. Invaders after invaders have poured into this country and tried to conquer it; some had a temporary success but in the end all of them have been absorbed and assimilated and become a living part and parcel of this nation.

The first such invasion was by the Persians. It was in the sixth century (558-530 BC) that the Persian emperor Cyrus knocked at the gates of India and brought the territory of Gandhara under his control. This district, west of the river Indus became tributary to the Persians, and was the twentieth and most populous satrapy of the Persian Empire. It paid a large tribute to the empire.

However, it was some two centuries later that the Greeks led by Alexander the great, invaded India.

In the year 336 BC the throne of Macedon, a powerful military state in the land of Greece in south-east Europe was ruled by Alexander, a prince of remarkable energy and ability.  In 333 and 331 BC Alexander inflicted two severe defeats on the great king of Persia and occupied his realm.  A few years later, the Persian king died and Alexander became the undisputed master of the Persian Empire.  After that he decided to cross the Hindukush and resolved to recover the Indian satrapies that once acknowledged the sway of the Persian rulers. To secure his communications he garrisoned a number of strongholds near modern Kabul and passed the winter of 327-326 BC in warfare with the fierce hill tribes of the Kunar and Swat valleys. He soon conquered the city of Pushkavalati which is situated about seventeen miles off Peshawar.

Alexander next forced his way through dense jungles to Ohind and crossed the Indus by a bridge of boats. Nearby is situated the kingdom of Takshashila which was then ruled by Ambhi. To the south-east of Takshashila are situated the twin kingdoms of the Pauravas, a people well-versed in the Vedic rites and hymns. The territory of the elder Puru was situated between the Jhelum and the Chenab, while the principality of his nephew stretched from the Chenab to the Ravi.

In his operations Alexander received valuable help from Ambhi, king of Takshashila, who received the invader in his own capital with great pomp and show. The Takshashila country was occupied by the kingdoms of Urasa and Abhisara, which are now in Hazara and Punch and Naushera sectors of Jammu and Kashmir.

 

After a brief respite Alexander resumed his march and pushed on to Vitasta, which is now modern Jhelum. There he was met by a huge army waiting on the other side of the river to oppose his further progress. This formidable host was led by the elder Paurava king - the great Pururaj. He was a man of gigantic and powerful build who was mortified by the conduct of his neighbour in Takshashila. True to the tradition of his ancient lineage reaching back to the Vedic period, Pururaj had resolved to defend at all costs the honour of his family and the independence of his kingdom against the audacious invader from the West. Alexander found it impossible to cross the stream, which was then in full flood, in the face of a mighty array of warriors and elephants. He diverted the attention of his enemy by demonstrations in different directions and then stole a passage at a sharp bend of the river about seventeen miles above his camp under cover of a thickly wooded promontory and an island in mid-stream covered with jungle. The place of crossing is located above the town of Jhelum. A small force led by Pururaj's son that had hurried to dispute the passage of the invaders was quickly routed, and the son was killed.

Alexander advanced quickly to give battle to the Indian king. Pururaj too marched forth to meet his adversary and drew up his army in battle array. He had with him 30000 foot soldiers, 4000 horses, 300 chariots and 200 elephants. He arranged his elephants in front of the infantry and placed the cavalry on the wings with chariots in front of them. The vast force looked like a city with elephants as the bastions and men-at arms as the circumvallating wall.

Pururaj made the mistake of allowing the Macedonians to take the offensive with their superior cavalry. The latter began by an attack on the Indian left wing. The Indian charioteer and horsemen could not withstand the onslaught of the mounted archers in the Greek ranks, and the Indian infantry were prevented by the slippery slush under foot from making an effective use of the formidable bows.  The elephants for a time spread havoc in the enemy's ranks, but many of the monsters were maddened by the wounds and rushed on friends and foes alike. The Paurava suffered most and was soon scattered by the veterans of Alexander. The Indian king did not however flee but went on fighting on a mighty elephant until he received a severe wound. Porus finally left the field with nine wounds. Then a man with a message galloped after him. Recognising him to be the traitor king of Takshashila, Pururaj threw a javelin at him. It is probably this encounter that is represented on a well-known coin. Other envoys came up to him including his friend Meros. Then Pururaj offered to surrender. 

He was then brought into the presence of the conqueror, who asked him how he would like to be treated.  "Treat me as a king", answered the valiant Pururaj. Alexander pressed him to be more precise and unflinchingly he replied, "When I said as a king, everything was contained in that".

Alexander treated his gallant adversary generously and gave him back his kingdom.

This is the first major resistance by an Indian king against the invaders. It was a heroic battle that he fought and although he lost it, the spirit of resistance and heroism was kept alive. Pururaj was a source of inspiration for all later Indian rulers who fought against incoming invaders. These invaders poured into this country century after century. They all tried to conquer the country and convert it to their own culture. But none succeeded except for a short time.

It is interesting to note that the Greek garrisons were soon swept away by Chandragupta Maurya and within a few years all vestige of foreign domination disappeared. This was done with the aid and advice of the brilliant Chanakya.

The Persian and the Greek invasions unveiled India to the Western world. As a result of this exposure, new lines of communication and trade routes were opened up. While the Greeks learned philosophy and religion from the Bhagavatas, the Indians took and absorbed coinage, astronomy, architecture and painting from the Greeks.  And it was done in such a way that these elements became a part of Indian culture and were no longer recognisable as foreign elements. This is one of the striking features of Indian culture and civilisation.

We shall see this phenomenon happening repeatedly. Invader after invader came to India and conquered the land; but he was only successful for a short time as all of them were absorbed and assimilated in Indian culture. We shall see in the following chapters how this was done.

Chanakya

In 326 BC India was faced with a crisis. The land of the Punjab and the Northwest was overrun by the Greeks led by Alexander. Alexander left for Babylonia and died soon after, but his commanders were determined to incorporate the whole of north-west India into their empire. Macedonian governors were appointed to rule over this area. But after the death of Alexander, internal dissensions arose among them. It was at this time that the king of Magadha, Chandragupta Maurya arose and with the help of Chanakya or Kautilya  the foreigners were first thrown out and the whole of India brought under one rule.

When Chandragupta Maurya ascended the throne, the country was divided into many small kingdoms ruled by different kings; the chief of this was the Nanda dynasty ruled by  Dhanananda, a man of  low birth and cheap character. The people under his rule were very unhappy and there was a lot of dissension in the kingdom.  Chanakya took full advantage of this and set out to defeat Dhanananda. In fact, Kautilya was the mastermind behind the destruction of the Nanda dynasty  that had hitherto ruled over Magadha.

When Kautilya came to Pataliputra which was still under Dhanananda to display his knowledge, the arrogant Nanda king insulted him. He offered Kautilya a feast  but took away the food as soon as the Brahmin  started  eating. In indignation and fury Kautilya took a vow: he would not henceforth tie his hair as  long as the evil Nanda dynasty was on the throne of Pataliputra. He was determined to crush the Nandas so thoroughly that the whole family would get eliminated. From then on he wandered disguised as an ascetic, looking for a suitable person, who would help him in his design. It is said that one day he met a bright boy Chandragupta who belonged to a minor royal line. Abandoned in childhood, he was raised by a cowherd. Kautilya saw him playing with other children; in a mock scene he was enacting the role of a king  and was dispensing justice. So impressed was Kautilya by the demeanour of the young lad that he instantly decided to take him under his tutelage and train him to bear the burden of kingly responsibilities in the future. He would help him weld all the small kingdoms into a huge centralised empire. It is also said that it was Chandragupta who first decided to choose Chanakya as his tutor. He had already made a few unsuccessful attempts to overthrow the Nandas. One day after his defeat as he was passing through some deserted roads, he saw an angry Brahmin, rooting out the bushes and  pouring sweet syrup across the field. Upon enquiry the Brahmin revealed that some thorn from the bushes had pricked him and he had accordingly decided to so thoroughly destroy them that they may not sprout again. Thus he was pouring across the field a syrup that would destroy the ants. The ants would eat up the very roots of the thorny bushes. He also declared that likewise he would be destroying the Nanda dynasty to its very root. So impressed was Chandragupta by the tenacity and determination of the learned Brahmin that he immediately accepted him as his teacher. 

Guided by Kautilya, Chandragupta started attacking the Nanda kingdom in all earnest. At first he failed miserably in his attempt to dislodge the Nandas. It is said that he got the hint of the right strategy to be adopted when he heard an old lady scolding her son. The son was attempting to eat out of the middle of a bowl some hot kheer. "You are as stupid as Chandragupta", she remonstrated suggesting that he should first eat from the outer area. Chandragupta followed the unsolicited advice; changing his strategy, he ignored the Nanda strongholds but harassed the troops stationed at the countryside.

Chanakya utilised many methods and strategies  in order to achieve his objectives. The Nanda king had an able minister to assist him by name Rakshasa. He had great administrative skills, determination and loyalty to the Nandas. Chanakya realised that there would be no peace in the kingdom unless he won over Rakshasa to his side.

When Chandragupta was planning his attack upon the Nanda kings, he had sought the alliance of a Mleccha king Parvataka. He promised him half  the Nanda kingdom  in the event of victory. The Nandas were defeated and Rakshasa with the remnants of the Nanda family fled. Chanakya with his spies hunted them out and put them all to death. Rakshasa was now obsessed with the desire to avenge his dead masters.  He sent to the royal palace a magic maid, Vishakanya, whose mere touch killed a man. Chanakya with the help of his spies discovered the plot and managed to send the maid to Parvataka instead. The Mleccha king died and Chandragupta was saved from the division of his empire.

Chanakya decided to isolate Rakshasa completely. By a brilliant strategy he managed to convince everyone that it was Rakshasa who had killed Parvataka. He also managed to forge a letter showing that Rakshasa was plotting against the Nanda dynasty. Thus in the eyes of the people Rakshasa was completely isolated. It was decided that Rakshasa should be hanged. However, at the fated moment, Chanakya  arranged to rescue  Rakshasa and made him one of the important ministers of  Chandragupta Maurya. Thus with the help of Rakshasa, Chandragupta gradually closed in upon the capital and with one last effort defeated the Nanda army. Dhana Nanda  was slain after the battle. After this, Chanakya and Rakshasa together worked out brilliant strategies to completely defeat the Greek overlords who still ruled the Northwest of India. 

In a short time the whole of India, except the extreme South, came under the rule of Chandragupta Maurya. India became politically united under the brilliant administration of Chandragupta with the sage advice of Chanakya. The rule of the Mauryas may be considered as one of the golden ages of Indian history. 

Having succeeded in guiding Chandragupta in the establishment of an empire, Kautilya retired from active life in order to record what he considered to be the fundamentals of a sound policy for building enduring institutions. The result of his meditations is the "Arthashastra".

"In the happiness of the subjects lies the happiness of the King, in their welfare lies his own welfare; the welfare of the state is not what pleases the king, but his happiness is the welfare of the subjects".

This verse was written by Kautilya, the author of "Arthashastra" or the science of statecraft. He was born at a time when India was divided into innumerable small states, each one more or less sufficient to itself. Kautilya realised that this was the root cause of many of the problems  facing this vast country. A small state was incapable of facing the onslaught  of a larger enemy. Moreover  large scale prosperity is not possible unless the unit attains a certain size.  Kautilya attempted to create a large empire which would bring under its control all the different small kingdoms of the vast Indian subcontinent. It implied that all these units had to be centralised, brought under a common administration. Sometimes the small units themselves would like to attach themselves to the big empire as that would provide them with a security. Otherwise, according to Chanakya, if required force had to be used  in order to bring all the small units under one control. But once brought under a centralised government, unless a clear, wise and just policy is adopted by the rulers, the small groupings would have a tendency to break away and reassert their small independence.  The Arthashastra contains a series of instructions and advices which the ruler should follow, so that the central authority remains preserved for a long time.

The Arthashastra enjoins that life should be lived according to the Dharma, the law of Truth and  Righteousness. Kautilya, however, being also a very practical man realised that a Dharmic life is not possible in a condition of general want and poverty. Accordingly he formulated that the purpose of life is Dharma, but the basis of Dharma is Artha or widespread prosperity and the basis of Artha is sound government. Hence the importance of good administration.

He realised that  there is no peace inside the kingdom if people are not by and large satisfied. There must be a sense of justice and subjects must be protected from the arbitrariness of the officials. There must be system in the dispensation of justice and the punishments given should not be left to the whims or prejudices of the judicial officials. At the same time one must not curb their powers so drastically that the system stops to function. To achieve the right balance is the art of good government. Thus the Arthashastra specifies the power and privilege that each  part of the administration should carry as well as define the boundaries of that power. The Dharma of the ruler is to keep a check on all officials and ensure that they discharge their responsibilities.

According  to Chanakya, the basis of living is always to follow the path of the Dharma. He states: "the king who attacks a righteous ruler will be hated by his own people and others. Conversely, one who attacks an unrighteous ruler would be liked by all". When there was a choice between attacking a strong but unjust king and a weak but righteous one, Kautilya advises that the unjust one should be attacked even though he be a strong adversary for the subjects of the just king will not only come to his help but even follow him to his death.  The ruler must endear himself to his subjects.

Also Kautilya advises that once a territory is conquered, great care must be taken providing it with good administration. The ruler must respect, as far as possible all the traditions of the conquered people. A system  of central subsidy should ensure that the outlying areas always feel that it is beneficial for them to belong to the large grouping. For force can hold a territory only for a very short duration. Ultimately the small group should feel as if impelled from within to belong to the larger organisation.

The Arthashastra of Kautilya is referred to as the finest statement of the right relationship between the ruler and ruled. This is an ample testimony to the genius of Kautilya. The Mauryan empire perished in time but the injunction of Kautilya continues to remain embedded in the  political thought through successive ages.