An Approach To Indian History -Prof. Kittu Reddy

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The Hindu Revival

Part 1

 

Any observer to India in the early part of the 14^th century would have noticed that not only the whole of North India had come under Muslim rule, but also all the historic kingdoms of Deogiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudram and Madura representing the political structure of South India had fallen to Muslim arms. The green flag floated right down to the ramparts of Rameswaram. The whole of the Gangetic valley had already been under Muslim rule for over a hundred years and all the centers of Hindu spiritual and cultural life – Mathura, Benaras, Kanauj and Prayag were almost in ruins. No organized resistance could be seen anywhere and it seemed that a complete Islamisation of India was inevitable. One would almost have felt that short of a divine intervention there was no future for the Hindu people and Hinduism as a religion.

And yet a hundred years later, the picture was totally different. The Hindu people had not only effected an astonishing recovery, but were fighting back. In this chapter, we shall take a look at this great recovery in the field of religion, culture and politics. Although the religious awakening was the root cause of the revival, we shall start with the political story of the times.

The two centres of resistance to the Muslim rule were the Rajput and the Vijaynagar kingdoms.

It was in the year 1326 that the Rajputs retook Chitor under the  leadership of Hamir Singh and announced to the Muslim world in Delhi that a new power had arisen in Rajasthan. In the battle that ensued the Sultan of Delhi was defeated and had to purchase his freedom by the cession of extensive territories including Ajmer, Ranathambor and Nagore along with fifty lakh rupees and a hundred elephants. Thus the fight opened between the  Ranas of Mewar and the  Muslim rulers of Delhi; the Ranas earned the title Hinduan Suraj and Hindupati.

Hamir Singh became the first ruler of Mewar to use the honorific 'Maharana'. As a result of this victory a period of relative peace and prosperity began. 
Maharana Hamir Singh became a bridge to the past, adhering to the principles of trusteeship laid down by Bappa Rawal and restoring the glory of Vedic traditions.

TheRanas of Mewar then adopted the clan name of Sisodia. Maharana  Hamir Singh emerged as the 'sole Hindu prince of power left in India : all the other ancient dynasties had  been crushed.'

The period between 1382 A.D. - 1421 A.D. was the golden age for  the Maharanas of Mewar.  Their triumph over adversity, their political will to consolidate the State and develop every aspect of Mewari culture, and the way they moulded the character of Rajputs was awe-inspiring. The impact of their achievements is still visible, centuries later.  Maharana Lakha was a prolific builder of palaces and temples, a fine patron of the arts, and a developer of silver and zinc mines. 

Rana Kumbha:  Rana Kumbha who ruled from Kumbhalgad also put up a stout resistence to Muslim incursions into Rajputana in the 14th century. His capital Kumbhalgad which is a formidable fortress in densely forested Aravalli Ranges facilitated his resistance to the Muslims. This was one of the few times when the Rajputs used guerrilla tactics against the enemy.

Rana Kumbha provided a burst of creative energy and military might, which made Chittor the centre of medieval India. Unparalleled as a builder of forts and a patron and promoter of the arts, he set the trend for future rulers; but above all he was supreme as a military leader. Rana Kumbha, hailed as one of the greatest military generals of the Sisodia Rajputs, was a ruler of varied talents. He was as intensely committed to literature and music as to the rigors of warfare. 
Rana Kumbha reigned for over 30 years, from 1433 to 1468, and consolidated Mewar's independence as a Hindu kingdom. Like his illustrious predecessors, Rana Kumbha was a defender of Mewar's territories, not ready to accept the sway of the Delhi Sultans over Gujarat, Malwa and parts of Rajasthan. Mewar was invaded several times and successfully defended by Rana Kumbha. In 1437, Sultan Mahmud, King of Malwa, was taken prisoner after a pitched battle and Rana Kumbha demonstrated his magnanimity as a victor. Mahmud was treated as a guest and then released without demands for ransom. Thus the  hallmark of Mewari conduct in victory was established once again. 

Rana Kumbha was a relentless builder constructing no less than 32 of the 84 fortresses in Mewar. The monumental fort Kumbhalgarh, named after the Rana himself, is a majestic fort-city with 33 km-long stone walls encircling the hill. But it is in Chittor that Rana Kumbha's most impressive construction is seen: the Kirti Stambh or the Tower of Victory, 120 feet high rising through nine storeys. A pure example of Hindu style and craftsmanship, it offers an eloquent testimony to Hindu tolerance and cultural catholicism.  Rana Kumbha's vast literary output - dramas in Sanskrit, books on varied subjects like genealogy, grammar, musical compositions - underscore his multifaceted talents.  His erudition, his commitment to artistic excellence and his military might make Rana Kumbha one of the greatest personalities, not just of Mewar and Rajasthan, but of medieval India.

Like the illustrious Kshatriya Kings of ancient India, the Maharanas exemplified the finest Hindu values and traditions in war and in peace: Honour and chivalry, selflessness and respect for humanity.

 

Krishnadeva Raya

The early history of Vijaynagar is somewhat shrouded in obscurity. However it is generally  believed that the five sons of Sangama, of whom Harihara and Bukka were the most eminent, laid the foundation of the city and kingdom of Vijaynagar, on the southern banks of the Tungabhadra facing the fortress of Anegundi on the northern bank.  It is also said that they got their inspiration from the celebrated Brahmana sage Madhava Vidyaranya and his famous brother Sayana, the famous commentator on the Vedas. Harihara and Bukka and their three brothers made earnest efforts to organise resistance against the Muslim invaders from the North.

The greatest of the Vijaynagar rulers was Krishnadeva Raya, and is known as one of the most famous kings in the history of India. It was in 1509 that Krishnadeva Raya ascended the throne and from then onward he took an active part in expanding the empire.

He was of medium height with a fair complexion and a good figure. He was the most feared as well as the most revered; he was acclaimed as the most perfect king that could possibly be. Krishnadev was cheerful of disposition; he sought to honour foreigners and received them kindly. He was a man of justice and was known and revered as a great ruler which earned him the title of Krishnadev Maharaya, king of kings, lord of the greater lords of India, lord of the three seas and of the land.  

He possessed a very striking personality; he was physically strong in his best days and kept his strength up to the highest pitch by hard bodily exercise. He rose early and developed all his muscles by the use of Indian clubs and the sword. He was a fine rider and was blessed with a noble presence, which favourably impressed all who came in contact with him. He commanded his armies in person, was able, brave, and statesmanlike, and was a man of much gentleness and generosity of character.

All Southern India was under Krishnadev Raya's sway and several semi-independent chiefs were his vassals. 

A gallant and active warrior, he was always successful in the wars that he waged almost throughout out his reign. He first turned his attention towards suppressing the feudal lords in the central portion of his empire before trying to meet his great rivals in the north. In 1510 he conquered the territory of South Mysore and the fortress of Sivasamudra. 

Krishnadev was constantly at war with the king of Orissa and invaded his kingdom, capturing and destroying many cities and  towns. He put to rout numbers of his soldiers and elephants  and took captive his son. In order to make a treaty for preserving peace the king of Orissa gave Krishnadev one of his daughters in marriage.

In 1520 there took place the great battle and siege of Raichur. Krishnadev Raya marched with an immense host of troops from Vijaynagar; it is said that his army consisted of  about a million men, with over 700,000 fighting men and 550 elephants. The troops advanced in eleven great divisions or army corps and other troops joined him before Raichur. The Sultan also brought his troops and entrenched himself near Raichur. On May 19th the forces became engaged and a decisive pitched battle was fought.

The Sultan had deployed his troops over a wide area; Krishnadev Raya made no attempt to outflank his adversary and ordered an advance to his immediate front of the two forward divisions. He was successful and the Muslims went back to their trenches. But the Sultan called upon his reserve troops who opened fire and caused great loss to the troops of the Raya. The Raya's troops fell back in the face of this formidable bombardment and the retreat was changed to a rout. The Raya rallied his troops, collected a number of his nobles and took the offensive, prepared to face death with the bravery that characterised him. Mounting on his horse, he ordered a forward movement of the whole of his remaining divisions and charged the ranks of the Sultan. This resulted in complete success, for the enemy, scattered and unable to form fled before his impetuous onslaught. He drove them back to the river and the entire army was put to flight. The Raya then crossed the river and seized the Sultan's camp while the Shah himself escaped and fled from the field on his elephant.

During Krishnadev Raya's time the Vijaynagara empire expanded in the east up to Orissa, in the west up to Bhatkal and Honavar and the western coast, in the north upto Raichur and in the south upto the sea. It is said that Krishnadev levied taxes even on Ceylon.  After his victory in the battles, the king issued an order that monumental gopurams should be built in front of every temple. Accordingly gopurams were built in front of the Vithala temple at Hampi as well as in front of the temples of Tiruvannamalai, Chidambaram, Kalahasti, Srirangam and Tirupati, which are still standing and are called Rajagopuras.

The reign of Krishnadev Raya was remarkable for the encouragement and development of art and letters. Himself an accomplished scholar, the Raya was a generous patron of learning. He was famous for his religious zeal and catholicity.  He respected all sects of the Hindu religion alike, though his personal leanings were in favour of Vaishnavism.  His kindness to the fallen enemy, his acts of charity towards the residents of captured cities, his great military prowess which endeared him alike to his feudatory chiefs and to his subjects, the royal reception and kindness that he invariably bestowed upon foreign embassies, his imposing personal appearance, his genial look and polite conversation which distinguished a pure and dignified life, his love for literature and for religion, and his solicitude for the welfare of his people, and above all, the most fabulous wealth that he conferred as endowments on temples and Brahmanas, mark him out indeed  as the greatest of  South Indian monarchs who sheds a lustre on the pages of history.

Krishnadev was well versed in Sanskrit, Tamil and Kannada. He was also a patron of Telugu literature and his period is known as the Augustan age of Telugu literature. He had his own composition both in Telugu and Sanskrit. Nine poets known as "Navaratnas" adorned his court of whom it is said that Tenali Ramakrishna was the most famous.

The rulers of Vijaynagar had a carefully organised military department, called Kandachara under the control of the Dandanayaka or Commander in Chief. The State maintained a large and efficient army which in times of need were reinforced by auxiliary forces of the feudal lords and nobles. The components were the infantry, recruited from different classes and creeds, occasionally including even Muslims; the cavalry strengthened by recruitment of good horses from Ormuz through the Portuguese, and elephants and camels; and lastly the artillery which was being used by the Indian king for more than 100 years since 1368.

Krishnadeva Raya died in 1529 and was succeeded by his half-brother Achyuta Raya. The empire lasted till 1565 when the Deccan Sultans defeated the Vijaynagar army and thus ended the Hindu supremacy in the South.

 

The Hindu Revival

Part 2

The religious  revival

Hinduism at the end of the 13^th century lay prostrate under the impact of Islam; in North India and particularly in the Gangetic valley, it was subjected to heavy destruction. Scholarship, piety and religious fervour seemed suddenly to have come to an end. In the South, it was somewhat better as Islamic influences had not penetrated deeply. It was customary for the Muslim rulers to send back the images from Hindu temples to be trampled upon by the faithful in the streets of the capital. In fact Hinduism was no more than the religion of a conquered people and as such looked upon with contempt. The traditional religious centers like Benares, Prayag and Mathura lay prostrate at the feet of the conqueror. And yet within the next two centuries there was a complete revival. This revival came with the advent of a large number of spiritual personalities all over the country. These personalities did nothing else except to live an intense and genuine spiritual life and by doing so awakened the people to the true founts of Indian spirituality.

The first great personality in this revival was Ramananda. 

Ramananda was a great devotee of Rama and resided in Benares in the 14^th century. He completely eliminated the increasing rancour between the Shaiva and Vaishnava sects and made Vaishnavism easy to follow by relaxing the stringent rules in vogue in its practice earlier. He established in practice the truth that there was no place for untouchability and differences between castes and communities in the field of devotion (Bhakti) and that the door of God is open to all without differentiation of any sort. During the Muslim rule he organized united and protected the Ramanandi sect. One of his  chief disciples was Kabir.

Mahatma Kabir had received the Guru-mantra of Rama-nama from him. A Hindu child brought up by a Muslim weaver Niru and his wife Nima, Kabir sought to break the barriers between Hinduism and Islam by going into the heart of religion. He was more than convinced that when it comes to any scripture, "the letter killeth" and that the so-called pandits and Maulavis who miss the "spirit" unwittingly turn themselves into hate merchants.  In his time, Arabic and Sanskrit were the chief languages of religion and the masses knew little of them. Kabir's dictum was: `few men are qualified to become scholars but all are required to be good. Hence association with the good, Satsang, is a positive way of forging good character than learning by heart scriptural passages without having any idea of their real import.' 

Kabir's spiritual urge manifested itself even when he was a boy and it was by using a stratagem that he managed to get initiated in "Rama" mantra by the great saint Ramananda who eventually declared him as the dearest of his disciples. 

It is said that Kabir, in the pre-dawn hours, stretched himself on the steps of a bathing ghat in Ganga where Ramananda had his bath every day. On realising that he had unwittingly stepped on the body of someone, Ramananda uttered "Rama, Rama," which became for Kabir the sacred mantra. Ramananda was taken to task for initiating Kabir by both orthodox Muslims and Hindus but when Ramananda understood Kabir's depth of sincerity he embraced him and prophesied that he would make a mark in his life. 

From then on it was a triumphant spiritual ascent for Kabir who ranks high among the religious reformers of India. In his own time, Guru Nanak and several other spiritual leaders acknowledged Kabir's greatness and in later times, Rabindranath Tagore is among the literary giants who have sought to spread Kabir's message. 

There are well-known Kabir Panthis with followers from among Hindus and Muslims.  

It is said that Emperor Sikandar Lodi, angered by Kabir's refusal to salute him tried to get him killed by drowning, burning and other means of torture before finally acknowledging Kabir's greatness. 

One thing is certain. Kabir's precious teachings are a legacy of the nation and will continue to inspire those who seek the kernel of religion and not the husk. Kabir is said to have given up his body at Maghar in Gorakhpur District at the ripe old age of 78. 

Kabir says: To associate with a Sadhu is like sitting near a seller of perfumes; though he does not sell you anything, you still enjoy the perfume. 

No act of devotion can equal truth; no crime is so heinous as falsehood; in the heart where truth abides there is God's abode.

Jnanesvara (Gnanadeva) - 1271-1296 

Jnanesvara was the second of four children. The eldest one ran away from home in search of God when he was barely eight years old. The second one followed and found his elder brother in the forest who is said to have initiated him into spiritual truths. Jnanesvara was forever grateful for this. He not only regarded his brother as his guru, but also preached that the greatest path to God is by unswerving devotion to one's guru. 

Jnanesvara was inspired by the teachings of the Bhagavad Gita. He preached the message and meaning of this immortal work embodying the essence of the Hindu faith. His preachings have been collected in a book called Jnaneswari which he is reported to have completed at the age of fourteen. Gnanadeva insisted much on austerities and celibacy, and declared in his commentaries on the Gita that the path of action was fundamental for spiritual growth, that all action must have self-realization as the goal. 

Gnanadeva also emphasized the importance of bhakti or pure devotion. He defined bhakti as "that in which one thinks of nothing except God; refuses to hear anything except His name; serves none but God and contemplates on nothing but God." Even the inferiority resulting from caste or sex could be overcome by bhakti. He says, "Just as the impress of the king's order makes a piece of paper go as silver, so also a beast, a woman or a Sudra  whosoever performs Bhakti, gets emancipated and reaches God". 

Another major work, known as Amritanubhava or Experience of the Elixir, is also attributed to Gnanadeva. The goal of this work is stated to be the extension and diffusion of the knowledge of God, which he had himself gained through the unlimited magnanimity of his spiritual teacher to all the people in the world."

 

Surdas

Born blind to poor parents, Surdas was not only denied the warmth of parental love but had to undergo neglect and ill-treatment of his family members. His parents probably died when he was still a child. 

All the love that was denied him as a child he vicariously enjoyed recreating, by means of his songs, the love that was showered on Bala Gopala in Braj by Yashoda, Nandagopa, the Gopis and the Gopas. 

Living in a lowly hut and meeting his meagre wants by alms that came to him unsought, Surdas who had, aided by a good memory, already learnt by heart most of Srimad Bhagavata and other sacred hymns in Sanskrit, delighted himself in composing songs on Sri Krishna in Braj Bhasha. 

It is one of the marvels in the realms of literature how a blind poet could portray in such meticulous and colourful detail the childhood of Krishna, stage by stage. Krishna's cutting his first tooth, his uttering of the first word, his taking the first step unaided, are all occasions for Surdas to compose inspired songs which are sung even to this day, in hundreds of homes, by mothers who see child Krishna in their own children. 

The greatest blessing of Surdas's life came when Sri Vallabhacharya, the celebrated exponent of the Shuddhadvaita accepted him as his disciple and gave him mantra deeksha. 

Sri Vallabhacharya imparted to his worthy disciple, who was on the threshold of his own youth, the esoteric knowledge symbolised by Radha Krishna Lila. 

Surdas who never entertained any idea of marriages saw in Sri Krishna the eternal lover and he portrayed the love between Radha and Krishna as ethereal love-the irresistible attraction the individual soul has for the Oversoul or of the Jivatma for the Paramatma. 

 

Narsi Mehta

Narsi Mehta, the great Gujarat singer, lived for a while with his brother. He and his wife Manek Ba had no peaceful time in the house where the brother's wife subjected them to great ridicule and trouble. Narsi bore this patiently but, on one occasion, when unsalted food was served and he was told that he deserved nothing better as he earned nothing, he left the brother's house.

Narsi went on singing the Lord's name. In his great love he even said that it was because of his brother's wife that he was blessed with the darshan of the Lord. This moved the brother, who asked him to return to the house. But as Narsi's mind was turned inwards now, he had no need of family or the pleasures of the world. He could only be the slave of Krishna, Nandakumar. So he bade good-bye to his brother and went his way, singing.  The spiteful Nagar community laid many charges against Narsi before the ruler of Junagadh. Narsi submitted himself to the trial in the Raja's temple. A miracle took place. All those assembled including the Raja saw the temple door open by itself and a garland came out of it and fell round the neck of Narsi. Others saw this, but seeing the Lord Himself doing all that, Narsi fainted. The ruler was astounded at the devotion of Narsi and the Lord's love for him. 

These are but a few of the names that revived the true religious spirit in India in the Middle Ages; this was followed by a period of intense activity and of vital gestation. Important religious movements like Ramanuja’s Vaishnavism and Basava’s Saivism, which came into existence earlier, found new life and vigour. In   the period after this came the Bhakti movement of Sri Chaitanya and Vallabhachaarya’s movement in Mathura and Guru Nanak’s Sikhism in the Punjab. There have been many others who played a quiet and unostentatious role in the awakening of India. This religious awakening had its effect on all the aspects of Indian life - literature, art and architecture, and even social development.

 

In society there was a serious effort in strengthening the Hindu society against the conquering Islamic community. This manifested itself in the rewriting of the Smritis. One of the most famous of these writers is Devaditya of Mithila. He was the author of numerous works and his Smriti Ratnakara is especially important, as it is an authoritative digest dealing with Hindu social life. In Bengal, there was a similar revival of dharma Sastra literature. Sulapani stands out as the most authoritative representative of Bengali writers on Dharma Sastra. However the greatest revival in this field was in the Vijaynagar Empire. It was the trio of Vidyaranya, Madhavacharya and Sayanacharya that gave a tremendous fillip to social thought and gave to the Vijaynagar empire the character of a Hindu revival. Sayanacharya is best known for his commentary of the Vedas. His monumental work preserved the  knowledge of the Vedas and paved the way for further commentaries in the modern age. His brother Madhaavaacharya reinterpreted the  dharma sastras in his scholarly work Parasara Madhaviya; it is a work of great originality and helped in the liberal approach to social problems. The dharma sastra literature is important as it provides evidence of the social unrest of the time and the readjustments Hindu society made to face the impact of Islam.

Let us now look at the revival in literature and art. This period is particularly significant as it witnessed the growth of regional languages under the influence of Sanskrit. Nor was Sanskrit neglected. In fact, this period saw the production of Sanskrit literature of a very high quality; more important was the geographical spread of this revival. Sanskrit became a force in all parts of India, even in areas where Islamic kingdoms were dominant. The Vijayanagar court took the lead in the matter and the rulers of that great empire were generous patrons of Sanskrit learning. Sankara Vijaya of Vidyaranya and Narakasura Vijaya of Madhava  were exquisitely beautiful compositions. The Zamorins of Calicut were also Sanskrit poets of distinction and  the work of Uddanda who wrote the Kokila Sandesa stands out as a masterpiece of Sanskrit literature. In Bengal, there was a large crop of allegorical  plays and devotional poetry. The Sarangadhara Paddhati is a treasure house, which enables us to realize the richness and variety of Sanskrit poetry. The productive activity of Sanskrit literature was amazing and although the quality was not as great as the earlier classical periods, it shows that there was a powerful expression of Hindu national resurgence.

The regional languages also produced great literature. It must be noted that the regional languages were not rivals to Sanskrit but flourished under the protecting umbrella of Sanskrit. The general characteristic of this immense activity was that it was a movement of translation, adaptation and popularization of the great works of Sanskrit. In Bengal, we have the great names of Krittivas, Chandidas and Vidyapati. Indeed, Vidyapati is regarded as one of India’s great lyrical poets. The theme of his poems is the love of Radha and Krishna. In Gujarat, we  have the great poet Narasimha Mehta whose poems are full of Jnana and Bhakti. The Marathi poet Nama Deva belongs to this period.

In the South, Villuputturar rendered the Mahabharata into Tamil and is revered as an Alwar. Telugu also witnessed a remarkable resurgence of literary activity. Srinatha was probably the greatest poet; another outstanding figure was Potana who translated Srimad Bhagavata considered one of the treasures of Telugu. In Kannada literature, Kumara Vyasa’s translation of Mahabharata is the great achievement of this period. In Kerala the translation of Ramayana, Mahabharata and the Bhagvata by the Niranam poets was the time when the Malayala literature attained its full flowering.

In the arts, a vigorous school of Indo Muslim architecture developed in the Gangetic valley adding to the richness of the Indian artistic heritage. In Rajasthan the Jayastambha or Tower of Victory built by Rana Kumbha was one of the most impressive and artistic works of the time. In South India, the city of Vijaynagar, planned and built not only as the capital but also as the citadel of Hinduism gave ample opportunity for Hindu architectural talent. The city of Hampi bears witness to the great   architectural beauty as testified even by foreign visitors.

In sum, this was the period, which saved India from a complete Islamization and determined the future destiny of the Indian nation. At a time when it seemed almost certain that Indian civilization would be completely eclipsed, this powerful Hindu revival set it once again on the path to its higher destiny.

 

 

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