An Approach To Indian History -Prof. Kittu Reddy

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The Moghul Empire – Part 1

After the invasion of the Muslims and their consolidation in the Delhi Sultanate, India underwent a radical change. India had been subject to invasions from as early as the 3^rd century BC, but the powerful assimilative capacity of Indian culture had absorbed the culture of the earlier invaders, - the Greeks, the Huns and the Sakas. The same phenomenon did not take place in the case of the Islamic culture; though there was some kind of absorption it was not complete. The reason for this was the attachment of each to its own religion. The Muslim religion was militant and aggressive, while the Hindu religion was spiritually tolerant indeed and flexible, but obstinately faithful in its discipline to it own principle and was standing on the defence behind a barrier of social forms. Yet, mutual contact brought about an interchange of ideas and mutually influenced each other to a great extent. Underneath the ruffle and storm of political strife, there developed a mutual respect for each other and this manifested itself in many fields. Indian mysticism powerfully influenced Islam and many Muslim scholars and saints helped in the dissemination of Islamic mysticism in India. There was a growing veneration of Hindus for Muslim saints and a corresponding practice by Muslims of venerating Hindu saints. This led to the common worship of Satyapir or the True Saint.

At the same time, there was a greater study by Muslim scholars of Hindu literature and philosophy. This led to the creation of a new and beautiful language Urdu, which was made of a mingling of Persian, Arabic, Turkish and Sanskrit languages. This by itself is a proof of the linguistic synthesis of Hindu and Muslim languages. This exchange also led to interaction in the fields of architecture, painting and music. As an inevitable consequence Indian culture was enriched.

At the same time Islam influenced Hinduism in two directions. On the one hand the proselytizing tendency of the Muslim religion strengthened the orthodox tendencies of the Hindus; on the other hand some of the democratic principles of Islam made its way into the social and religious systems of the Hindus.

In the political field however, although the Muslim rulers employed a large number of Hindus in the administration, the political strife remained underneath.

It is more important to note the major change that took place in the political set up. As we have seen in the earlier chapters, there was in ancient India a strong democratic element No doubt there were monarchs but Indian monarchy previous to the Mohammedan invasion was not, in any way a personal despotism or an absolutist autocracy. It had no resemblance to the ancient Persian monarchy or the monarchies of western and central Asia or the Roman imperial government or later European autocracies: it was of an altogether different type. In spite of a certain sanctity and great authority conceded to the regal position and the personality of the king as the representative of the divine Power and the guardian of the Dharma, he did not have absolute power.

But now we had a totally different system. The Muslim State in India was a theocracy and the Sultan was considered to be Caesar and Pope combined in one. His authority in   religion was based on the Holy law of the Quran but in practice he was an autocrat, unchecked by any restrictions and his word was law. The real source of his authority was military strength and this was understood by all - the common people, the soldiers, the poets (Amir Khusrau) and even the ulemas. But as the Delhi Sultanate was moving towards disintegration, the rise of indigenous independent states began to take place. These states were both Hindu like in Vijaynagar, Orissa and Mewar and Muslim like in Gujarat and Ahmednagar. All these represented local movements of self-determination. But before these movements of self-determination could take shape, they were destroyed by another invasion of which the leader was Babur. This   gave another turn to the history of India.

It was in 1526 that the Moghul rule over India started. . Babur, the first Mughal emperor, was a descendant of the Turkish conqueror Timur on his father's side and of the Mongol (in Persian, mughal) conqueror Genghis Khan on his mother's side. Babur who was the ruler of Kabul invaded India and defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the battle of Panipat. With this defeat the Delhi Sultanate was laid to rest. As a result of the Battle of Panipat in 1526, Babur became the ruler of Delhi and Agra. But now he had to fight against two other enemies, the Afghan nobles of Bihar and Bengal, and the Rajputs under Rana Sanga of Mewar. Rana Sanga was a brave warrior. The Mughals and the Rajputs met in the decisive battle of Khanwa on March 16, 1527. The Rajputs fought bravely but Babur defeated the Rajputs.

In 1530, after the death of Babur, his elder son Humayun succeeded the throne. At the age of twenty-three, Humayun became the ruler of the Mughal empire in India. But he had to face many difficulties. Firstly there were many pretenders to the throne and secondly the empire left by Babur was not yet consolidated. The growing power of Gujarat under Bahadur Shah was a great threat to Humayun. Bahadur Shah, who had won a great victory over the Rajputs, was now making plans to invade Agra. The Afghans of Bihar and Bengal found a new leader in Sher Khan and were trying to regain their lost power. In 1537, Sher Khan invaded Bengal. Humayun realised the power of the Afghans too late. In 1539, Sher Khan defeated Humayun at Chausa, and in 1540, he defeated Humayun at Kanauj, and went on to capture Delhi and Agra. Thus Sher Khan re-established the Afghans rule in Delhi. Humayun was compelled to flee from India. In 1542, he reached Amrakot (in Sind), where Akbar was born in November 1542. At last Shah Tahmasp I, the ruler of Persi, gave him shelter. Humayun managed to regain his father's territories in 1555; however he died soon after in an accident and the throne was passed on to his 13-year-old son, Akbar, whose 49-year reign laid the foundation of empire It was 1556, after Akbar ascended the throne that the full sway of the Moghul Empire was established.

Akbar, the third king of the Moguls was proclaimed emperor on the 14th February 1556 at the age of thirteen. Since Akbar was so young the reins of administration fell into the hands of his guardian Bairam. Soon after his   accession, Himu, the capable general and minister of Adil Shah Sur, opposed the Moguls. Himu met the Mogul army under Akbar and Bairam at the historic field of Panipat. After some initial successes, Himu was defeated as the result of a chance arrow that struck him in the eye. Himu was put to death and the battle was won by Akbar. The result of the second battle of Panipat was decisive. The Afghan-Mughal contest for supremacy came to an end with the victory of the Mughals. After this battle, his first task was to consolidate his position. A strong imperialist by instinct, he followed a policy of conquest for the expansion of his empire. Rajputana was a powerful factor in the history of India. Gifted with insight, Akbar realised the value of Rajput alliance in his task of building up an empire in India. He thus tried as far as possible to conciliate the Rajputs and secure and ensure their active co-operation in almost all his activities. By his liberal policy, he won the hearts of most of them to such an extent that they rendered valuable services to his empire and even shed their blood for it. The empire of Akbar was in fact the outcome of the co-ordination of Mughal prowess and diplomacy and Rajput valour and service. 

The Rajputs maintained their independence until the time of Akbar and his successors and it was in the end partly with the aid of Rajput princes acting as their generals and ministers that the Moguls completed their sway over the east and the south. However, Mewar refused to accept the Mughal sway and offered fierce resistance. Uday Singh retained his independence though he had lost his ancestral capital. After his death on 3rd March, 1572, Mewar found a true patriot and leader in his son Rana Pratap; Akbar sent his trusted Rajput lieutenant, Man Singh, to admonish the Rana about the futility of resistance. The Rana received his guest with all the honour due to a person of his eminence, and arranged a feast for him. He however excused himself from attending the dinner; he was not inclined to eat with a man who had sold his services to the Moguls.  Man Singh set about the task of reducing Mewar with a thoroughness born out of a deep sense of loyalty to his master. Meanwhile Pratap was making careful preparations to give battle to the Moghul armies.

The magnitude of his task can be well understood when we note that without a capital and with only slender resources, he had to oppose the organised strength of the Moghul Emperor, who was then immeasurably the richest monarch on the face of the earth. Further, his fellow chiefs and his neighbours and even his own brother, devoid of the high Rajput ideals of chivalry and independence, had allied themselves with the Moguls. But no obstacle was too alarming for this national hero of Rajputana, who was made of nobler stuff than his relations.

The inevitable imperial invasion of his territory took place in April 1576, under a body of troops commanded by Man Singh of Amber and Asaf Khan, and a furious battle was fought at the pass of Haldighat on June 21 1576. Mounting his famous steed, Chetak, Pratap jumped into the thick of the battle, performing prodigies of valour, which have been written in letters of gold in the military annals of Rajasthan. The Rajputs fought recklessly, though outnumbered by the enemy. At the pass of Haldighat, Pratap stood and clan after clan followed with desperate intrepidity, emulating the daring of their prince who led the crimson banner into the hottest part of their field. But this magnificent display of valour was in vain for the strength of the Moguls was overwhelming. Out of 22000 Rajputs assembled that day in Haldighat, only 8000 left the field alive. The battle of Haldighat will remain for ever cherished in the memory of the Rajputs.

 Pratap was defeated and barely escaped with his life, which was saved by the selfless devotion of the chief of Jhala, who drew upon himself the attack of the imperialists by declaring that he was the Rana. Mounted on his beloved horse, 'Chetak', the Rana betook himself to the hills and his strongholds were captured by his enemies one by one. But Pratap could not think of submission even in the midst of the direst adversity. Hunted from rock to rock by his implacable enemy, and feeding his family from the fruits of his native hills, he continued the war with undaunted spirit and energy and had the satisfaction of recovering many of his strongholds before he died on the 19th January 1597, at the age of 57. The Rajput patriot was anxious for his motherland even at his last moment, for he had no faith in his son; and before he expired, he exacted from his chief a pledge that his community should not be abandoned to the Mughals.

Undaunted heroism, inflexible fortitude, that sincerity which keeps honour bright, perseverance - with fidelity such as no nation can boast of, were the materials opposed to a soaring ambition, commanding talents, unlimited means and the fervour of religious zeal, - all however insufficient to contend with one unconquerable mind. The Rajputs have produced able generals and more astute statesmen than Pratap, but not more brave and noble patriotic leaders than he.

After the battle of Haldighati, Akbar annexed Ranathambor and Kalinjar in 1599. He then proceeded to annex Gujarat. Gujarat was important as it had flourishing ports on its coasts and an attractive commercial position and special economic advantages. The conquest of Gujarat marks an important epoch in Akbar’s history. He next turned his attention to the  conquest of  Bengal. Akbar personally led the campaigns into Bengal, which was annexed in 1575. Orissa was annexed and brought into the Moghul empire in 1592.

He then turned his attention to the North-West Frontier. This  region occupies a position of strategic as well as economic importance and it was therefore necessary to effectively control it. By the year 1595, Sind, Baluchistan, Kandahar and even Kashmir were brought the under the sway of Akbar. He was now undisputed ruler of the  area extending from the Himalayas to the Narmada and from the Hindukush to the Brahmaputra. Thus the whole of North India and Central India was under the empire.

The next target of Akbar was the Deccan. This was part of his imperialistic policy and not based on any religious considerations. Also he wanted to control the Deccan as the Portugese had already established themselves in the South. He felt that it would not be wise to allow the Portuguese to enjoy the economic prosperity of the Deccan. He first tried to control the Southern States by extortion and peaceful diplomatic means; but he failed and so he was led to take resort to arms. Although he succeeded to extend his sway to a certain extent, having pushed his boundaries to the Krishna River, he never had any real control over the Southern Kingdoms. Thus Akbar had built a huge empire and had brought almost the whole of India under Mogul rule.

The Mogul empire – Part 2

Akbar died in 1605. He was succeeded by Jahangir (1605-38), Shahjehan (1638-58) and Aurangzeb (1658- 1707). Jehangir continued the policy of conquest and annexation. It was during the rule of Jehangir that Captain Hawkins – an English envoy – came with a letter from King James 1 of England seeking permission for trade in 1608. His visit was followed by the appointment of Sir Thomas Roe as ambassador to the Mogul court in 1616. Jahangir gave permission to the English company to establish their factory at Surat. It was during his reign that execution of Guru Arjun Dev – the sixth guru of the Sikhs – took place.

The reign of Shahjahan is noted for the great monuments. Besides the Taj Mahal which is his greatest creation, the other notable monuments are: Diwani-khas, Diwani-am, Moti masjid and Lal Qila or the Red Fort.

Aurangzeb was a religious bigot and totally alienated the Hindu population. He was looked upon the majority of people as a misguided fanatic. His empire was shaken by a series of revolts by the Sikhs, the Rajputs and the Mahrattas led by Shivaji. Soon after his death in 1707, the empire broke up. After Aurangzeb, the rest were emperors in name only. The 19th.and last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II was deposed by the British in 1858 after the Sepoy Mutiny.

The Mogul Empire and its achievements

Akbar was a liberal and tolerant king. There were many influences that worked upon him. It is said that his mother sowed in him the seeds of toleration. His contact with Sufism and the Sufi saints when he was in Kabul impressed upon his mind liberal and sublime ideas. Finally, his Rajput wives and his contact with Hinduism and the reformation movements made an impression on his sensitive mind. At the same time being an intelligent ruler with a sharp political mind and desiring to build an all-India Mughal Empire, he realized the great importance of religious harmony in the empire. To this end, in 1582 he resolved to attempt the task of providing all sects in his empire with one universal eclectic religion to which he gave the name of Divine Monotheism or Din-I-Ilahi. He persuaded himself that he was the vice-regent of the Almighty, empowered to rule the spiritual as well as the temporal concerns of his subjects. That audacious attempt was an utter failure, but Akbar never formally admitted the fact, and to the end of his life he persisted in maintaining the farce of the new religion. From that time onward he proclaimed that he was not a Muslim. His actions at times gave substantial grounds for the reproach that he was not unwilling to be regarded as a God on earth. But he could not succeed. For in the words of Sri Aurobindo:“It must however be noted that Akbar's effort to create a new Dharma for the Indian nation by his enlightened reason was a brilliant futility. For it is not by political means that one can create a spiritual religion. Only the rare individual, Avatar or prophet who comes on earth perhaps once in a millennium can speak truly of the divine truth, for the secret of his force is not political but spiritual.”

The Mogul administration

Akbar was not only a great conqueror but also a very capable administrator. Akbar was endowed with remarkable courage and uncommon physical strength. As stated by his son Jahangir, "Akbar was always ready to risk his life, regardless of political consequences." With his qualities, he was able to establish a long-lasting empire in India. He was a great patron of art and literature. Endowed with farsightedness, Akbar built the political structure of the Mughal Empire, and its administrative system, on the co-operation and goodwill of all the subjects. His system of administration continued for more than 200 years. Akbar divided his kingdom into fifteen Subas or provinces. Each province was governed by Subhedar. The Subhedar was assisted by Diwan (Finance Minister) and a Qazi (Judge). The provinces were further divided into Sarkars (districts) and the Sarkars were further divided into Parganas. He did not ignore the feelings of the conquered and trample on their rights and privileges for his own self-interest. Akbar changed the method of charging land revenue. The tax was imposed on the basis of the fertility of the land and the farmers were allowed to pay either in cash or kind. Being very kind-hearted, Akbar also granted land revenue in case of famine, drought or other calamities. He even advanced loans to farmers. Later land revenue was assessed for ten years. This made farmers richer and the country became prosperous.

Akbar knew the importance of a strong and well-equipped army. He graded the whole military power. The officers were denoted by rank. Akbar tried to remove all the distinctions between the Muslims and non-Muslims. He even appointed Hindus to high posts. He abolished the pilgrim tax in the eight year and jizya in the ninth year of his reign. There was no written code of laws that existed in the Mughal period. Akbar tried to be as just as possible. Daily, Akbar used to spend some time listening to the complaints and used to settle them. Capital punishment was given only in the extreme cases and that too by the emperor himself. Generally fines were imposed as punishment and sometimes the criminals were imprisoned. Akbar tried to introduce humane social reforms.

Mogul art

The peace and order secured by Akbar, and the cosmopolitan ideas of the religious movements of the period, stimulated the genius of the people in manifold areas, such as literature, architecture, painting and music. It mist be noted that the Mogul period was not entirely an age of innovation and renaissance, but of a continuation and culmination of processes that had their beginnings in the later Truko-Afghan period. In fact the art and architecture of the period after 1526, as also of the preceding period, represent a happy mingling of Muslim and Hindu art traditions and elements.

Mogul Architecture

Indian architecture took new shape with the advent of Islamic rule in India towards the end of the 12^th century AD. New elements were introduced into the Indian architecture that include: use of shapes  (instead of natural forms); inscriptional art using decorative lettering or calligraphy; inlay decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brilliantly glazed tiles.  The concept of arch or dome was not invented by the Muslims but was, in fact, borrowed and was further perfected by them from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period.  The Muslims used the cementing agent in the form of mortar for the first time in the construction of buildings in India. They further put to use certain scientific and mechanical formulae, which were derived by experience of other civilizations, in their constructions in India. Unlike most monuments of Islamic countries, which were largely constructed in brick, plaster and rubble, the Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic architecture was greatly facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments in India.

The amazing achievements in the Mogul architectural tradition owe much to the great talent of Indian artisans and the wealth of material found in India, including the abundance of stone. Each emperor used local materials and indigenous forms and craftsmanship to nurture and bring to fruition a unique enduringly beautiful architectural tradition. The Mogul style found triumphant fulfillment in the building of the Taj Mahal, the most splendid expression of the centuries of Mughal rule in India. The Taj Mahal was the last and greatest architectural flowering of the Mughal period in Agra. In the words of Sri Aurobindo:

“The Taj is not merely a sensuous reminiscence of an imperial amour or a fairy enchantment hewn from the moon's lucent quarries, but the eternal dream of a love that survives death. The great mosques embody often a religious aspiration lifted to a noble austerity, which supports and is not lessened by the subordinated ornament and grace. The tombs reach beyond death to the beauty and joy of Paradise. The buildings of Fatehpur-Sikri are not monuments of an effeminate luxurious decadence, —an absurd description for the mind of the time of Akbar, — but give form to a nobility, power and beauty, which lay hold upon but do not wallow on the earth.”

It is claimed by some that Mogul art was entirely indigenous in its origin. But here again let us see what Sri Aurobindo has to say:

“I am not concerned to defend any claim for the purely indigenous origin of its features. It seems to me that here the Indian mind has taken in much from the Arab and Persian imagination and in certain mosques and tombs I seem to find an impress of the robust and bold Afghan and Mogul temperament; but it remains clear enough that it is still on the whole a typically Indian creation with the peculiar Indian gift. The richness of decorative skill and imagination has been turned to the uses of another style, but it is the same skill which we find in the northern Hindu temples, and in the ground we see, however toned down, something sometimes of the old epic mass and power, but more often that lyric grace which we see developing before the Mahomedan advent in the indigenous sculpture, — as in the schools of the North-East and of Java, —and sometimes a blending of the two motives”.

In the field of literature too, there was a great out flowering. The most accomplished writer in Persian of the reign was Abdul Fazl, a man of letters, a poet, an essayist, a critic and a historian. By order of the Emperor, many books in Sanskrit and other languages were translated into Persian. Different sections of the Mahabharata were translated into that language by several Muslim scholars and were compiled under the title of Razm-Namah. Hindi literature too developed in a big way. Most of the literature of the time was devoted to Krishna worship or to the Rama cult. Surdas writing in Brajbhasa composed verses on the charms of Krishna’s early life. Among the writers of the Rama cult was Tulsi Das; he wrote the Ramacharitamanasa, which has been described as the “one Bible of a hundred million people of Hindustan”. Not only was he a poet of the highest order, but also he was a spiritual teacher of the people and his name has become a household word and his memory is worshipped by millions.

In the field of music, Akbar, Jehangir and Shahjehan extended considerable patronage to it. It is said that 36 singers enjoyed the patronage of Akbar’s court. Of them the most famous were Tansen, about whom it is said that “a singer like him has not been in India for the last thousands years.

The death of Aurangzeb signaled the disintegration of the Mogul empire; civil war broke out among his three sons for the control and possession of the throne of Delhi. This was followed by foreign invasions and the rise of independent Muslim and Hindu states all over India. The Mogul empire disintegrated like all previous empires. It failed like the empires before it, more disastrously even, and in the same way, crumbling not by external attack but by internal disintegration. A military and administrative centralised empire could not effect India's living political unity. And although a new life seemed about to rise in the regional peoples, the chance was cut short by the intrusion of the European nations and their seizure of the opportunity created by the failure of the Peshwas and the desperate confusion of the succeeding anarchy and decadence.

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